MockSutra

Image credits

Many pictures in our notes are freely licensed works from Wikimedia Commons and other open sources. Each one marked “Fig. N” on a notes page is credited below under that page, with its author, a link to the original file and its licence. Pictures in the public domain, and diagrams drawn by MockSutra, carry no number and need no credit. Pictures may have been resized or cropped to fit the page.

Maps

The maps in our notes are drawn by MockSutra from this open data.

Indian Polity

Making of the Indian Constitution: Constituent Assembly, Dates and Sources

  1. Fig. 1Formal portrait of Rajendra Prasad in a dark buttoned coat and white cap. Archives New Zealand, 1958 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A poster about the decorated original hand-written Constitution. The man in the photo is the artist Beohar Rammanohar Sinha, who decorated its Preamble page (shown beside him). Artists of Santiniketan led by Nandalal Bose decorated its pages. The English text was hand-written by Prem Behari Narain Raizada.. Preamble page by Beohar Rammanohar Sinha (1949); poster: Abrsinha · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Preamble of the Indian Constitution: Meaning, Key Words and the 42nd Amendment

  1. Fig. 1The Preamble put up on a door. Schools and offices across India display it, and it is often read aloud on Constitution Day, 26 November.. Savvywriter, 2020 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Union and its Territory: Articles 1 to 4, New States and Union Territories

  1. Fig. 1The Palace of Assembly, Chandigarh. The Vidhan Sabhas of both Punjab and Haryana meet in this building, because Chandigarh is the capital of both.. duncid, 2006 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Open Hand monument, Chandigarh. Chandigarh became a union territory in 1966. Since 1984 the Governor of Punjab has also been its Administrator.. Raakesh Blokhra, 2006 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Thiksey, in the Indus valley, Ladakh. Ladakh became a union territory without a legislature on 31 October 2019. In January 2020 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu were merged, leaving 8 UTs.. Vyacheslav Argenberg, 2007 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source

Citizenship in the Indian Constitution: Articles 5 to 11

  1. Fig. 1A voter shows her voter ID card, 2009. Under Article 326, only an Indian citizen aged 18 or more can be on the voters' list.. Goutam Roy for Al Jazeera English, 2009 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A British Indian passport of the 1940s. Before 1950 Indians were British subjects. Indian citizenship began only with the Constitution on 26 January 1950.. Stalinjeet Brar (passport dated 1942) · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3North Block, New Delhi, was the office of the Ministry of Home Affairs until 2025, when it moved to the new Kartavya Bhavan. The Home Ministry runs the Citizenship Act: registration, naturalisation and OCI cards.. Rashid Jorvee, 2018 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Fundamental Rights: Articles 12 to 35 of the Indian Constitution

  1. Fig. 1The Supreme Court of India, New Delhi. Under Article 32 anyone can come straight here if a Fundamental Right is broken. That is why it is called the guardian of Fundamental Rights.. Subhashish Panigrahi, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar. Article 25 carries a note made for Sikhs: wearing and carrying a kirpan counts as part of practising the Sikh religion.. Bernard Gagnon, 2018 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The Punjab and Haryana High Court, Chandigarh. Under Article 226 it can issue all five writs, for Fundamental Rights and for other legal rights.. Ishita Gupta, 2021 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Right to Equality: Articles 14 to 18 of the Indian Constitution

  1. Fig. 1The Supreme Court of India. Its judgments shaped the Right to Equality: reasonable classification, the rule against arbitrariness, the 50% limit on reservation and the creamy layer.. Subhashish Panigrahi, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Preamble promises equality of status and of opportunity. Articles 14 to 18 turn that promise into rights a court can enforce.. Prtksxna, 2015 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Chavdar Tale tank, Mahad. In March 1927 Ambedkar led a satyagraha here so Dalits could draw water from a public tank. Article 15(2) now opens public wells and tanks to all.. Mayurhulsar, 2012 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Right to Freedom: Articles 19 to 22 of the Indian Constitution

  1. Fig. 1The Supreme Court of India. Its judges turned the single line of Article 21 into a long list of rights, from livelihood to privacy.. Subhashish Panigrahi, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Office of the Bombay Samachar, Mumbai, first published in 1822. The Constitution has no separate press freedom. It is part of freedom of speech and expression, Article 19(1)(a).. Yash parmar123, 2018 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Group photograph of four CPI(M) leaders in 1966, with A. K. Gopalan on the far left. Amarjit Chandan, 1966 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Maneka Gandhi in a meeting in New Delhi in 2016. Dragan Tatic / Austrian Foreign Ministry, 2016 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Schoolchildren in Tamil Nadu, 1961. Then, education for all children was only a Directive Principle (Article 45). Since 2002 it is a Fundamental Right for ages 6 to 14.. Kazimierz Nowicki, 1961 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6The old Parliament House, New Delhi (now called Samvidhan Sadan). Under Article 22(7) Parliament decides the longest period of preventive detention. Parliament and state legislatures can both make such laws for public order.. Sidheeq, 2014 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Directive Principles of State Policy: Articles 36 to 51

  1. Fig. 1A poster about the decorated hand-written original Constitution: the artist Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and the Preamble page he decorated (1949). The Constitution's Part IV, Articles 36 to 51, holds the Directive Principles of State Policy.. Preamble page by Beohar Rammanohar Sinha (1949); poster: Abrsinha · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Statue of B. R. Ambedkar in Amritsar. He called the Directive Principles a novel feature of the Constitution.. Kritzolina, 2023 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A Vechur cow, an Indian breed from Kerala. Article 48 asks the State to improve breeds and prohibit slaughter of cows and calves.. Mullookkaaran, 2013 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4A Gram Panchayat office in Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh. Article 40 asked for panchayats in 1950. The 73rd Amendment (1992) made them constitutional.. Timothy A. Gonsalves, 2012 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5The Supreme Court, New Delhi. In Minerva Mills (1980) it said Rights and Principles must be kept in balance; neither is fully above the other.. Subhashish Panigrahi, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Fundamental Duties: Article 51A of the Indian Constitution

  1. Fig. 1The giant tricolour at Attari, near Amritsar, on the India–Pakistan border. Article 51A(a) makes it a Fundamental Duty of every citizen to respect the National Flag.. eclicks_by_bunny, 2018 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Sardar Swaran Singh in a turban and suit, photographed in Nairobi in 1964. Ajit Singh Chaggar, 1964 (Amarjit Chandan archive) · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Soldiers at India Gate, New Delhi. 51A(d): defend the country and render national service when called.. KCVelaga, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

President of India: Election, Powers, Veto and Impeachment

  1. Fig. 1Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi, the official home of the President of India. Built as the Viceroy's House, it got its present name in 1950. The President is the head of the State; real power is used by the Council of Ministers.. Matthew T Rader, 2010 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Black-and-white portrait of Rajendra Prasad, 1958. Archives New Zealand, 1958 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Photo of A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, 2008. Lijesh K, 2008 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Pratibha Patil at a function releasing a commemorative postage stamp, 2008. AIIC-MITS, 2008 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Vice-President of India: Election, Role and Removal

  1. Fig. 1V. V. Giri is sworn in as President in Parliament House, 1969. He was Vice-President, acted as President after Zakir Husain died, resigned to contest the election, and won it.. President's Secretariat, 1969 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Photo of R. Venkataraman. Jaisingh Rathore · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.5 · Source
  3. Fig. 3President V. V. Giri gives the oath of office to the new Vice-President G. S. Pathak at Rashtrapati Bhavan, 1969. The President swears in the Vice-President (Article 69).. President's Secretariat, 1969 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Vice-President Mohammad Hidayatullah presents an award, 1982. He is the only person to have been Chief Justice, acting President (1969) and Vice-President.. Soulmoksha, 1982 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Prime Minister and Council of Ministers: Articles 74 to 78

  1. Fig. 1The Secretariat buildings on Raisina Hill, New Delhi. South Block, one of the pair, housed the Prime Minister's Office for decades, until the PMO moved to the new Seva Teerth complex in February 2026. The President is the head of the State, but the Prime Minister is the head of the government.. Matthew T Rader, 2010 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Lal Bahadur Shastri (photo 1963) with young IPS officers at Mount Abu. He became India's second Prime Minister in 1964 and died in office at Tashkent in January 1966.. National Police Academy, 1963 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Manmohan Singh in a blue turban and dark suit in 2007. Ricardo Stuckert/PR, 2007 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 br · Source

Parliament of India: Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and How Laws Are Made

  1. Fig. 1The old Parliament House (Sansad Bhavan), New Delhi, seen from Vijay Chowk. Parliament worked here from 1927 until it moved to the new building in September 2023.. Nikhilb239, 2014 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The old Parliament House, a round building opened in 1927. It is now called Samvidhan Sadan.. Bill Strong, 2006 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Central Vista, New Delhi, from the air (2025). The new Parliament building stands here next to the old one.. Government of India (Narendra Modi YouTube channel), 2025 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Indian Judiciary: Supreme Court, High Courts and Lower Courts

  1. Fig. 1The Supreme Court of India, New Delhi. It is the highest court of the country. The Constitution deals with it in Part V, Articles 124 to 147.. Subhashish Panigrahi, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Inside the Supreme Court complex. Cases on the meaning of the Constitution go to a bench of at least five judges, called a Constitution Bench. The biggest bench so far had 13 judges (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973).. Pinakpani, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The same court today. After the 1966 reorganisation it became the common High Court for Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh.. Asmit4, 2018 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Calcutta High Court (Kolkata). One of the first three High Courts, 1862.. Avrajyoti Mitra, 2007 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Bombay High Court (Mumbai), also 1862.. Adam Jones, 2016 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Madras High Court (Chennai), also 1862.. Raki_Man, 2014 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source

State Government: Governor, Chief Minister and State Legislature

  1. Fig. 1The Palace of Assembly, Capitol Complex, Chandigarh, designed by Le Corbusier. It houses the Punjab Vidhan Sabha (117 seats) and the Haryana Vidhan Sabha.. UnpetitproleX, 2021 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Entrance of Raj Bhavan, Pune, a residence of the Governor of Maharashtra. Each Governor lives and works in a Raj Bhavan. Article 159: the Governor's oath is given by the Chief Justice of the High Court.. DesiBoy101, 2023 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Vidhana Soudha, Bengaluru, seat of the Karnataka legislature. Karnataka is one of the six states with a Legislative Council: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh.. Moheen Reeyad · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4The Palace of Assembly seen across the Capitol Complex plaza. The Capitol Complex is part of Le Corbusier's works listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2016).. duncid, 2006 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source

Panchayati Raj and Local Government: 73rd and 74th Amendments

  1. Fig. 1A gram panchayat office in Batheri, Mandi district (Himachal Pradesh). The 73rd Amendment (1992) made such village councils constitutional bodies with regular five-yearly elections.. Timothy A. Gonsalves, 2012 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Photograph of Rajiv Gandhi taken in 1987. Bart Molendijk / Anefo, 1987 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 nl · Source
  3. Fig. 3Nagaur Fort, Rajasthan. At Nagaur, on 2 October 1959, Nehru launched panchayati raj. Rajasthan became the first state to start it; Andhra Pradesh followed the same year.. Rituraj.bharti, 2010 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4A gram panchayat building (Por). The elected village council is the lowest tier of panchayati raj.. Snehrashmi, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5The district panchayat building in Dahod (Gujarat). The Zila Parishad is the top tier.. Gazal world, 2017 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Ripon Building, home of the Greater Chennai Corporation. Madras had India's first municipal corporation, from 1688.. PlaneMad, 2007 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Municipal Corporation Building, Mumbai. A big city like this has a Municipal Corporation, the top kind of urban local body.. Joe Ravi, 2011 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Centre-State Relations: Legislative, Administrative and Financial

  1. Fig. 1North Block, Raisina Hill. For decades it housed the Union Finance and Home ministries, the two that deal most with the states: money through the Finance Commission and GST, and coordination through the Zonal Councils.. Pinakpani, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The 11th meeting of the Inter-State Council, New Delhi, July 2016. The Council (Article 263) was set up in 1990 on the Sarkaria Commission's advice. It is chaired by the Prime Minister; all Chief Ministers are members.. Narendra Modi (official Flickr), 2016 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Another view of North Block. GST came with the 101st Amendment (2016) and began on 1 July 2017. Rates are recommended by the GST Council (Article 279A), chaired by the Union Finance Minister.. Pinakpani, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Emergency Provisions: Articles 352, 356 and 360

  1. Fig. 1Indira Gandhi (photo from 1982). As Prime Minister she advised the National Emergency of 25 June 1975, the only one declared on internal grounds. Its misuse led to the 44th Amendment (1978).. Prensa Rafael Caldera, 1982 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed signing a painting. President's Secretariat · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Statue of Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan in Vadodara, Gujarat. Snehrashmi, 2021 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed with state Governors at Rashtrapati Bhavan. A Governor's report to the President is the usual trigger for President's Rule.. President's Secretariat · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Constitutional Bodies in India: Election Commission, UPSC, CAG and More

  1. Fig. 1Photograph of T. N. Seshan taken in 1994. Rishabh Tatiraju, 1994 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The control unit of an EVM. It stays with the polling officer, who releases each vote. The voter presses a button on a separate balloting unit.. Shagil Kannur, 2020 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The ink mark on the index finger, still used today, as in 1952.. Fotokannan, 2020 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Dholpur House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi, home of the UPSC. India's first Public Service Commission was set up in 1926; it became the UPSC in 1950.. Ramesh Lalwani, 2016 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Photograph of senior lawyer K. K. Venugopal, 2011. Nikhil Kanekal, 2011 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Statutory Bodies in India: NHRC, CVC, Lokpal, CIC and More

  1. Fig. 1CBI headquarters, New Delhi. A favourite trap: the CBI was set up by a government resolution in 1963. Its police powers come from the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946.. Pulakit Singh, 2018 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A human rights mela at Connaught Place, New Delhi, 2018, run by the NHRC. Spreading awareness of human rights is one of its duties under the Act.. Pulakit Singh, 2018 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Anna Hazare on the second day of his fast, April 2011. The movement pushed Parliament to pass the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act in 2013.. Pankaj Jangid, 2011 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4SEBI Bhavan, Mumbai. SEBI began in 1988 as a non-statutory body and became statutory in 1992.. Jimmy Vikas, 2006 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5The RBI and General Post Office buildings in Kolkata. The RBI's first central office was in Calcutta (1935) before it moved to Bombay in 1937.. Vyacheslav Argenberg, 2009 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source

Constitutional Amendments and the 12 Schedules

  1. Fig. 1The old Parliament House, New Delhi (now called Samvidhan Sadan). Almost all constitutional amendments up to 2023 were passed here. The new Parliament building opened in 2023.. Nikhilb239, 2014 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Supreme Court, New Delhi. In 2015 it struck down the 99th Amendment (NJAC) because it hurt judicial independence, a basic feature.. Subhashish Panigrahi, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Black-and-white portrait of Rajiv Gandhi in 1987. Bart Molendijk / Anefo, 1987 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 nl · Source

Indian History

Ancient Indian History: Indus Valley to the Guptas

  1. Fig. 1The civilisation spread across today's Pakistan and north-west India. Red squares are major cities (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi).. Merikanto · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro — a large watertight tank, showing advanced engineering.. Saqib Qayyum · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi; Jainism's first Tirthankara was Rishabhadeva and the 24th was Mahavira.. AKS.9955 · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4The Great Stupa at Sanchi, begun under Ashoka — a landmark of Buddhist art.. Bernard Gagnon · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Medieval Indian History: Delhi Sultanate to the Mughals

  1. Fig. 1Pillared halls of the Vitthala temple complex at Hampi, reflected in a rain pool. Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagar empire; its ruins are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.. Basavaraj M · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Taj Mahal, Agra — the white-marble tomb Shah Jahan built for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, with four minarets around the dome.. Dhirad, edited by J. A. Knudsen · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb in 1707 (green line) — its largest size, from Kabul to Bengal and down past Bijapur and Golkonda. Only the far south stayed outside.. Avantiputra7 · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Modern Indian History

Advent of the Europeans in India: Portuguese, Dutch, English, Danes and French

  1. Fig. 1Statue of Joseph François Dupleix in Pondicherry. He was Governor of French India from 1742 to 1754. He is known for using small, European-trained armies to back Indian princes.. Yercaud-elango, 2026 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source

Battle of Plassey 1757: Causes, Course and Results

  1. Fig. 1The Holwell Monument in Calcutta, on a postcard of about 1916. It honoured the Black Hole dead. After protests led by Subhas Chandra Bose, the government agreed in 1940 to remove it.. Raphael Tuck & Sons, c. 1916 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source

Doctrine of Lapse: Dalhousie, the States Taken and the Road to 1857

  1. Fig. 1Rajwada palace, Satara. Satara was the seat of a line of Maratha kings. In 1848 it became the first state Dalhousie took under the doctrine.. Sudhir Dnyaneshwar Sukale, 2020 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Bhonsle kingdom of Nagpur at its height in the 18th century, before it lost Cuttack (Odisha) to the British in 1803. By 1854 it was smaller, but it was still the largest state taken under the doctrine.. After Joseph E. Schwartzberg · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Anglo-Mysore Wars: Four Wars, Treaties, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan

  1. Fig. 1The siege of Seringapatam, 1799: the end of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. J. M. W. Turner painted this in Britain, from reports. He never went to India, so it is not an eyewitness picture.. J. M. W. Turner, c. 1800 (Tate) · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Tipu's Tiger: a musical toy of a tiger attacking a European soldier. The British took it from Seringapatam in 1799. It is now in a museum in London.. Victoria and Albert Museum, 2011 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Delhi Gate, Srirangapatna. Tipu's island fortress capital on the Kaveri river. The British spelled it Seringapatam.. ChinyaSuhail, 2020 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Anglo-Maratha Wars: Three Wars, Treaties and the End of the Peshwas

  1. Fig. 1Shaniwar Wada, Pune: the palace-fort of the Peshwas. Their rule from here ended in 1818.. Mayurthopate, 2009 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Anglo-Sikh Wars: Battles, Treaties and the Annexation of Punjab

  1. Fig. 1Chillianwala monument, 2015. The battlefield is now in Pakistani Punjab, like Ramnagar and Gujrat.. Muhammad Imran Saeed, 2015 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Land Revenue Systems in British India: Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari and Mahalwari

  1. Fig. 1Gaine Rajbari, Dhanyakuria (West Bengal): the garden house of the Gaine family. They were rich traders in jute and other farm goods, not zamindars. In British times, trade as well as land built Bengal's big houses.. Srijitdutta.10, 2026 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Kalikapur Rajbari, Bengal. Big houses like this show the wealth landlords gained under British rule.. Kanad Sanyal · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Statue of Sir Thomas Munro in Chennai, put up in 1839. Munro is the name linked with the Ryotwari system of Madras.. N. Vivekananthamoorthy, 2024 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source

Drain of Wealth Theory: Dadabhai Naoroji, Home Charges and R. C. Dutt

  1. Fig. 1Statue of Dadabhai Naoroji in Mumbai, near Hutatma Chowk. Mumbai was his home city.. DesiBoy101, 2026 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source

Constitutional Development in British India: 1773 to 1947

  1. Fig. 1The Old Secretariat, Delhi, now the Delhi Vidhan Sabha. It was built in 1912, after the capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi. The Imperial Legislative Council met here, and after the 1919 Act the Central Legislative Assembly, until 1927.. Ramesh Lalwani, 2013 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Government of India Acts: 1858, 1909, 1919 and 1935

  1. Fig. 1The Council House, New Delhi, on a postcard from about 1927, the year it opened. The Central Legislative Assembly set up under the 1919 Act met here. It later became India's Parliament House.. Johnny Stores, about 1927 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Indian National Movement: Phases from 1885 to 1947

  1. Fig. 1The ancestral house of Lala Lajpat Rai at Jagraon (Ludhiana district), where he spent his early childhood. The Punjab Kesari led the Lahore protest against the Simon Commission in 1928.. Arjungoyal21, 2022 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A Congress procession in Bangalore during the Quit India Movement. With the top leaders in jail from 9 August 1942, local workers and students carried the movement on.. Dore Chakravarty · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source

Moderates and Extremists: Leaders, Methods and the Surat Split

  1. Fig. 1Statue of Lala Lajpat Rai at Dhudike (Moga), where he was born in 1865. He died at Lahore in 1928, after a police lathi charge on a protest against the Simon Commission.. Sarbjit Bahga, 2017 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Partition of Bengal (1905) and the Swadeshi Movement

  1. Fig. 1The partition of 1905 on a modern map. The east became a new province, Eastern Bengal and Assam, with its capital at Dacca (Dhaka). The west, with Bihar and Orissa, stayed as Bengal.. XrysD, 2017 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Revolutionary Movements in India: Ghadar, HSRA and Bhagat Singh

  1. Fig. 1Statue of Chandrashekhar Azad in the park at Allahabad (Prayagraj) once called Alfred Park. He died there in a gun battle with police on 27 February 1931. He had vowed never to be caught alive.. Amit bugg, 2009 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Auxiliary Force armoury at Chittagong, one of the raid's targets, from a memorial album of the rising.. Chittagong Uprising Memorial Album · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A poster of the Urdu daily Milap (1930) on the death sentence given to Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.. Daily Milap, 1930; photo Eshaanbera · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4National Martyrs Memorial, Hussainiwala (Firozpur), built in 1968 where the three were cremated in 1931.. Giridhar Appaji Nag Y, 2007 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

The Gandhian Era: From South Africa to Quit India

  1. Fig. 1Hriday Kunj, Gandhi's own cottage at the Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad. The ashram moved to this riverside site in 1917. On 12 March 1930 Gandhi left from here on the Dandi March.. Nichalp, 2006 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source

Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda Satyagraha (1917–18)

  1. Fig. 1Bhitiharwa Ashram, West Champaran. Gandhi and Kasturba opened a school here for village children.. Praanshu, 2010 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Hriday Kunj, Gandhi's cottage at the Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad. The ashram moved to this site in 1917, so it was Gandhi's base during the Ahmedabad mill strike and Kheda (1918).. Nichalp, 2006 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source

Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

  1. Fig. 1Bullet marks in a wall of the Bagh are preserved and marked with white frames.. Ahoun Xinjitsu, 2022 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The red sandstone Flame of Liberty memorial, opened by President Rajendra Prasad on 13 April 1961.. Annni07 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)

  1. Fig. 1Old postcard photograph of the brothers Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. Paper Jewels collection, c. 1917 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2An old silk card showing the "Gandhi flag" of 1921, with a charkha in the middle. During Non-Cooperation, the charkha and khadi became symbols of the national movement.. Ganesh and Co. silk card · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The Shaheed Smarak (martyrs' memorial) at Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur district, UP. The violence here on 4 February 1922 made Gandhi stop Non-Cooperation.. Nitishkumarojha · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Simon Commission and Nehru Report: Simon Go Back, Lala Lajpat Rai and the 1928 Constitution

  1. Fig. 1Dhudike (Moga district): his birthplace. A statue and a memorial library stand here.. Sarbjit Bahga, 2017 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2His ancestral house at Jagraon, where he spent his early childhood. The house was built in 1845.. Arjungoyal21, 2022 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Civil Disobedience Movement and the Dandi March (1930–34)

  1. Fig. 1The National Salt Satyagraha Memorial at Dandi, Gujarat, opened in 2019.. Rajruparel19, 2019 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Saifee Villa, Dandi, now a Gandhi museum. Gandhi is said to have stayed here when he reached Dandi.. Snehrashmi, 2020 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Lord Irwin (Viceroy 1926–1931) and Lady Irwin with Maharaja Jagatjit Singh of Kapurthala at his jubilee, 1927. Irwin later signed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact with Gandhi.. Roger Dumas, 1927 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Quit India Movement 1942: Do or Die, and the Road to 1947

  1. Fig. 1Portrait photograph of Ram Manohar Lohia. Sreedharantp (Malayalam Wikipedia) · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

INA and Subhas Chandra Bose: Azad Hind Fauj, Red Fort Trials and the Naval Mutiny

  1. Fig. 1Elderly Lakshmi Sahgal in a white sari speaking at a press event. Soman, 2005 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.5 · Source
  2. Fig. 2INA War Museum, Moirang, Manipur. The INA flag was raised here in April 1944.. PP Yoonus, 2013 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Integration of Princely States: Patel, Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and PEPSU

  1. Fig. 1A modern map of PEPSU. Its land lay in separate blocks between East Punjab's districts, because the old states were scattered.. Dr. Andreas Birken, 2009 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 de · Source

Newspapers and Journals in British India: From Hicky to Young India

  1. Fig. 1Kesari Wada, Pune (photo, 2022). From 1905 it was Tilak's home and the office of Kesari. Tilak was jailed more than once for what he wrote in it.. DesiBoy101, 2022 · Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Geography

India: Physical Features, Rivers and Drainage

  1. Fig. 1Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) seen from Pelling, Sikkim. It is on the Sikkim–Nepal border and is the highest peak in the part of India under its control. India's official highest peak is K2 (8,611 m) in the Karakoram, in Gilgit-Baltistan (shown in Ladakh on India's official map, now under Pakistan's occupation).. My Discovery, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Nilgiri Hills seen from Bandipur, Karnataka — part of the Western Ghats. Ashish K Gupta, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Sand dunes of the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer, Rajasthan — rainfall below 150 mm a year. Antoine Taveneaux, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Rivers and lakes of India. Find the Narmada and Tapi flowing west into the Arabian Sea, and the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri flowing east into the Bay of Bengal. The dotted line in the far north is India's official boundary. State lines on this map are older; use it for rivers only.. Planemad, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Devprayag, Uttarakhand: the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda meet here. From this point the river is called the Ganga.. Vvnataraj, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi, near Sambalpur, Odisha. With its earthen dykes it runs about 25.8 km, which makes it one of the longest dams in the world.. Quarterbacker, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source

India: Climate, Soils, Agriculture and Resources

  1. Fig. 1Monsoon clouds over the Western Ghats near Meenmutty falls, Kerala. The south-west monsoon reaches Kerala first, around 1 June, and the Ghats force the moist winds to rise and pour heavy rain.. Nagesh Jayaraman, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Average arrival dates of the south-west monsoon (red arrows). It reaches Kerala about 1 June and west Rajasthan last. Green arrows show the north-east winds of winter. This is an older map: the dates are the old normals and the state names are from before 2014 (no Telangana, Ladakh or the 2020 merger of Dadra–Nagar Haveli with Daman–Diu). IMD's revised normal, from 2020, has the monsoon covering all of India by about 8 July.. Saravask (based on Planemad and Nichalp), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Cutting laterite blocks at Angadipuram, Kerala. Laterite is soft when dug and hardens in air, so it is used as building brick — the name comes from the Latin later, 'brick'.. Werner Schellmann, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Mangrove forest of the Sundarbans, West Bengal, on the Ganga–Brahmaputra delta. Twice a day the tide floods the mud; small breathing roots poke up from it. The Sundari tree gives the forest its name.. Pinakpani, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Transplanting paddy (rice), the main kharif crop, in a flooded field in Tamil Nadu. Thamizhpparithi Maari, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6A tea garden at Munnar, Kerala. Tea needs warm, wet hills with well-drained soil; Assam and Darjeeling are the other famous regions.. Ruben Joseph, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7An open-cast mine in the Jharia coalfield, Dhanbad, Jharkhand — India's most important coking-coal field. The red glow on the right is one of Jharia's underground coal fires, which have burned for decades.. TripodStories-AB, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Indian States, Capitals and Population (Census 2011)

  1. Fig. 1States and union territories of India. White circles are state capitals; black dots are UT capitals. This map shows the new UTs Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh (2019). It was drawn before 26 January 2020, so it still shows Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu as two UTs — they are now one UT.. Maximilian Dörrbecker (Chumwa), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Palace of Assembly, Capitol Complex, Chandigarh — designed by Le Corbusier. The city is named after the Chandi Mandir temple; 'garh' means fort.. UnpetitproleX, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Beach Promenade, Puducherry — once the capital of French India. In Tamil, 'Puducherry' means 'new settlement' (new town).. Dey.sandip, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Population density by state, Census 2011 (state lines as in 2011). Darker blue = more people per km². The Ganga plains and Kerala are crowded; the hilly north-east is not. India's average was 382.. M Tracy Hunter, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

World Geography: Earth, Time, Continents and Oceans

  1. Fig. 1Mount Everest, the world's highest peak, seen from the Tibet side. It stands on the Nepal–China border. Its height, re-measured by Nepal and China in 2020, is 8,849 m.. Luca Galuzzi (Lucag), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source

Physical Geography: Earth's Interior, Rocks and Landforms

  1. Fig. 1Mayon in the Philippines erupting. It is a composite (strato) volcano: layers of lava and ash have built a steep cone. Heat from inside the Earth drives volcanoes, earthquakes and the slow movement of plates.. Jaycee Esmeria, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The layers of the Earth: crust, mantle, outer core, inner core. The globe on the right is drawn to scale — see how thin the crust really is. The wedge on the left is not to scale.. Surachit, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The rock cycle. Magma crystallises into igneous rock. Erosion carries bits away to settle as sediments, which harden into sedimentary rock. Burial with heat and pressure makes metamorphic rock, which can melt back into magma.. Carie Frantz, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4A mushroom rock in the White Desert of Egypt. Wind carrying sand blows close to the ground, so it wears away the lower part faster and leaves a thin stem under a wide cap. This is an eolian (wind-made) landform.. Asgalal, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5The Perito Moreno Glacier in Argentina. A glacier is a slow river of ice. It scrapes valleys into a U shape and drops the rocks it carries as moraines.. Luca Galuzzi (Lucag), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source

Physical Geography: Atmosphere, Weather and Oceans

  1. Fig. 1The planetary winds. Trade winds blow from the subtropical highs (about 30°) towards the Equator, where they meet at the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Westerlies blow from 30° towards 60°. The winds curve because of the Earth's rotation.. Kaidor, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A halo round the Sun. It forms when sunlight bends through the ice crystals of thin, high cirrostratus cloud. A halo round the Moon forms the same way.. Brocken Inaglory, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Indian Geography: Minerals, Energy, Industries and Transport

  1. Fig. 1The steel melting shop of the Rourkela Steel Plant, Odisha. It was built with help from West Germany and stands close to the iron ore and coal of the Chota Nagpur region.. Sidharthkochar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Dumper trucks red with iron-ore dust at the Bailadila mines, Dantewada district, Chhattisgarh. Bailadila ore is of very high grade; much of it goes by rail to the Visakhapatnam port and steel plant.. Jithin.hill, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3ONGC oil and gas platforms at Mumbai High (Bombay High), in the Arabian Sea far off the Mumbai coast. Found in 1974, it is India's largest oil field; pipelines on the sea bed carry the oil and gas to the shore.. Nandu Chitnis, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Pandoh Dam on the Beas, Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh, beside the Chandigarh–Manali highway. From here tunnels carry Beas water to the Dehar Power House on the Sutlej side, and on into the Gobind Sagar of Bhakra.. Biswarup Ganguly, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Container cranes of the Visakhapatnam port seen from the fishing harbour. The inner harbour is cut into the land and sheltered by hills, so it is called a landlocked harbour.. eclicks_by_bunny, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Economy

Indian Economy: Planning, Agriculture, Industry and Population

  1. Fig. 1The 11th meeting of NITI Aayog's Governing Council (11 June 2026), chaired by the Prime Minister. The Governing Council brings together the Chief Ministers of the states — a sign that NITI works with the states rather than handing them money.. Prime Minister's Office (GODL-India) · GODL-India · Source
  2. Fig. 2A field of ripe wheat in Punjab, ready for harvest, with a water channel behind it. Wheat plus assured water is exactly the Green Revolution formula.. Harvinder Chandigarh · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A tractor pulls a Happy Seeder (the red machine behind it) near Sangrur, Punjab, in November 2011. It sows wheat directly into the dry paddy stubble you can see, so the farmer does not need to burn the stubble first.. CIAT · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Dr Verghese Kurien, founder chairman of the National Dairy Development Board, receiving a Lifetime Achievement Award from the All India Management Association in New Delhi on 21 February 2009. He led Operation Flood (1970), the White Revolution.. Ministry of Railways, Government of India · GODL-India · Source

Indian Economy: Banking, Money, Taxation and the Budget

  1. Fig. 1The Reserve Bank of India building in Mumbai (photo, 2024). The RBI began work on 1 April 1935 in Calcutta; its central office moved to Mumbai in 1937.. DesiBoy101 · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2This ₹1 note is issued by the Government of India and signed by the Finance Secretary. All other notes are issued by the RBI and signed by the RBI Governor.. Ch Maheswara Raju, via Wikimedia Commons · GODL-India · Source
  3. Fig. 3Coins and the ₹1 note are issued by the Government of India; all other notes by the RBI.. ChiK · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4The BSE (Asia's oldest stock exchange, 1875; index SENSEX) and the NSE (index NIFTY) are regulated by SEBI.. Niyantha Shekhar · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Art & Culture

Indian Classical and Folk Dances, Music and Instruments

  1. Fig. 1Bharatanatyam — the classical dance of Tamil Nadu.. Augustus Binu · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Kathakali — Kerala's dance-drama, famous for its elaborate painted face make-up and costumes.. Thorsten Vieth · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Bhangra (men) and Giddha (women) are the folk dances of Punjab, linked to the Baisakhi harvest.. Onef9day · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Indian string instruments including the sitar, veena, sarangi and tanpura, with a harmonium and tabla in front (MIM, Brussels).. Miguel Discart · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source

Indian Architecture and Heritage Sites

  1. Fig. 1Shikhara (Nagara): Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh), built by the Chandela kings. See how the curving tower rises like a mountain peak over the sanctum. A UNESCO site.. WarmaFiesta · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Vimana (Dravida): Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu). The tall, stepped tower is its vimana, built over the sanctum by Chola king Rajaraja I (completed c. 1010). A UNESCO site.. Stories Through Lense · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Gopuram (Dravida): an entrance gopuram of the same Brihadeeswarar Temple — the gateway tower you walk through to enter. Do not confuse it with the vimana over the sanctum.. Bernard Gagnon · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Vesara: Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura (Karnataka), built in 1268 under the Hoysalas. Hoysala temples are the usual example of the Vesara style — note the star-shaped platform and the stepped towers.. Rohit Sharma · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5One of the 24 carved stone wheels of the Konark Sun Temple, Odisha. The whole temple was designed as the Sun God's chariot pulled by seven horses. Built by Narasimha Deva I around 1250; a UNESCO site.. Joydeep · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6The Pancha Rathas ('five chariots'), Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu). Each shrine was carved out of a single rock in the 7th century under the Pallava kings. Part of a UNESCO site with the Shore Temple.. Vyacheslav Argenberg · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh — first built in brick under Ashoka (Mauryan era); the stone covering and the carved gateways (toranas) were added later. In this photo: the big dome is the anda; the small square railing on top is the harmika; the stone umbrella above it is the chhatra; the carved gateway in front is a torana. Its motif is on the ₹200 note.. Bernard Gagnon · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8The Kailasa Temple (Cave 16), Ellora. Look at the cliff around it: the whole temple was cut downwards out of one single rock, under the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I in the 8th century — often called the largest rock-cut monument in the world.. Shishirdasika · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9The iconic stone chariot at the Vittala Temple, Hampi — capital of the Vijayanagara Empire and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.. Ram Nagesh Thota · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10The Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur (Vijayapura), Karnataka — the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah, with one of the largest domes in the world and a 'whispering gallery' where a soft whisper can be heard across the dome.. Rangan Datta Wiki · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11The Taj Mahal at Agra — a white-marble mausoleum built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, and one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.. Yann · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Sri Harmandir Sahib (the Golden Temple), Amritsar — built by Guru Arjan Dev in the middle of the holy sarovar (tank); he installed the Adi Granth there in 1604. Maharaja Ranjit Singh later covered its upper floors with gilded copper, which gave it the name 'Golden Temple'.. Bernard Gagnon · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Indian Languages, Literature, Festivals and Religions

  1. Fig. 1Lohri, Punjab: on the night of 13 January people light a bonfire outside their homes, walk around it and throw in offerings. Lohri marks the end of winter and the sugarcane harvest.. Benipal hardarshan · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Hola Mohalla, Anandpur Sahib: a Sikh rider in blue balances on two galloping horses while a huge crowd watches. Guru Gobind Singh started Hola Mohalla as a day of martial skills, held the day after Holi.. bhavjit Singh · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A Pookalam — the flower rangoli of Onam, Kerala's harvest festival, with small oil lamps around it. Onam honours the legendary King Mahabali.. MEGSCHOPRA · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Inside a Durga Puja pandal in Kolkata: Goddess Durga on her lion, with Ganesha, Lakshmi, Saraswati and Kartikeya. West Bengal's biggest festival, on UNESCO's intangible heritage list since 2021.. Subhrajyoti07 · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Hemis Tsechu, Ladakh: monks in golden masks and silk robes perform the Cham dance in the courtyard of Hemis Monastery, near Leh. The dances act out stories from the life of Guru Padmasambhava; visitors watch from the sides.. Sdesh (Sarang Deshpande) · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Sports

Sports GK: Games, Players, Terms, Trophies and Events

  1. Fig. 1The five interlaced rings stand for the five inhabited continents; the Olympic motto is 'Citius, Altius, Fortius – Communiter' (Faster, Higher, Stronger – Together); the word 'Communiter' was added in 2021.. RuinDig/Yuki Uchida · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Chess terms — King, Queen, Knight, Bishop, Rook, and the Persian word Wazir (vizier) — are a common exam clue.. Aaaatu · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Kabaddi — 7 players a side; a raider must chant and return without being caught.. Doha 2006 · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Vallam Kali is Kerala's snake-boat racing; the Nehru Trophy Boat Race is the famous one.. Manoj Karingamadathil · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5The Narendra Modi Stadium (Motera) in Ahmedabad is the world's largest cricket stadium, seating about 1.32 lakh.. A Cricket Premi · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Awards & Honours

Awards and Honours: Civilian, Gallantry, Nobel and Field Awards

  1. Fig. 1The Bharat Ratna is India's highest civilian award. The medal is shaped like a peepal leaf; at most three can be given in a year (5 were announced in 2024).. Tmamatha · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Ashoka Chakra — the highest peacetime gallantry award (shown: 2019 conferment).. President's Secretariat (GODL-India) · GODL-India · Source

Important Days

Important Days: National and International

  1. Fig. 1Punjab link: statues of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev at the National Martyrs Memorial, Hussainiwala (Firozpur district), on the bank of the Sutlej near the Pakistan border. After they were hanged in Lahore on 23 March 1931, the three were cremated near this spot. A Shaheedi Mela is held here every 23 March.. Kuldeepburjbhalaike · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Punjab link: Harike Wetland, where the Beas and Sutlej rivers meet, spreading over Tarn Taran, Firozpur and Kapurthala districts. It became a Ramsar wetland in 1990. In the photo you see shallow water covered with floating water hyacinth plants, a small viewing deck and boats.. Jaypee · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Static GK

Science & Technology: Space, Defence, Inventions and Institutions

  1. Fig. 1The Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), launched in 2013 on PSLV-C25 — India's first Mars mission, and the first nation to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt.. ISRO · GODL-India · Source
  2. Fig. 2The HAL Tejas — India's indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), one of the world's lightest supersonic fighters, built by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.. Indian Air Force · GODL-India · Source

Computer Fundamentals

Computer Basics: Hardware, Software, CPU and the Five Generations

  1. Fig. 1A modern CPU in its socket on the motherboard. This one is an eight-core processor: one chip, eight cores working side by side.. Brian Wong, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Pascaline, the adding machine of Blaise Pascal (this one signed 1642). David Monniaux, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Part of Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, Science Museum, London. Bruno Barral (ByB), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Replica of Herman Hollerith's tabulating machine with its sorting box. Adam Schuster, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5An 80-column punched card: holes in fixed places stand for data. Mutatis mutandis, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.5 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Black and white portrait of John von Neumann in a suit. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Wikimedia Commons · Attribution (LANL) · Source
  7. Fig. 71st generation: vacuum tubes. Stefan Riepl (Quark48), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 de · Source
  8. Fig. 83rd generation: integrated circuits (the window shows the circuit). Zephyris, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 94th generation: microprocessor (Intel 4004, 1971). Thomas Nguyen, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

MS Office

MS PowerPoint: Slides, Views, Slide Show Keys, Transitions and Animations

  1. Fig. 1Where it came from. A Kodak Carousel slide projector with its round 140-slide tray. Before PowerPoint, speakers put photos on small film slides and showed them one by one. PowerPoint kept the word slide.. Steve Morgan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Internet & Web

Internet and the Web: Browsers, Search Engines, URLs and Online Tools

  1. Fig. 1This NeXT computer at CERN was used by Tim Berners-Lee as the first web server in the world. Every website today follows the idea he tested on it.. Coolcaesar (en.wikipedia), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Tim Berners-Lee smiling, speaking on stage. Amy Martin Photography, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Marc Andreessen seated, speaking at an interview event. JD Lasica, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Sergey Brin (left) and Larry Page (right) started Google in 1998, while they were students at Stanford University, USA.. Joi Ito, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Computer Networks: LAN to WAN, Topologies, OSI, IP Addresses and VoIP

  1. Fig. 1Network switches in a rack. Most cables here join one computer, printer or phone to the office network.. Parkis, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2An RJ45 plug on a Category 5 twisted-pair cable. It clicks into the Ethernet port of a computer, switch or router.. David Monniaux (assumed), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A VoIP phone (IP phone) on an office desk in London. It plugs into the computer network, not a telephone line.. Ged Carroll, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Cyber Security: Malware, Phishing, Encryption and Staying Safe Online

  1. Fig. 1An Enigma cipher machine used by the Swiss Army. You typed a normal message and its turning wheels gave out scrambled letters. Today the same idea, encryption, runs inside every phone.. Rama, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 fr · Source
  2. Fig. 2Something you are: a fingerprint scanner, like those used for office attendance. Sanskritibharti1398, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Something you have: a smart card such as a bank card. This close-up shows the tiny chip (about 2 mm) that sits behind the gold contact pad, seen from the back. Rolf Süssbrich, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Social Media and Messaging Apps: Platforms, Founders, Owners and Uses

  1. Fig. 1Mark Zuckerberg speaking on stage at the F8 conference in 2019. Anthony Quintano, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Jack Dorsey in a light jacket, seated and speaking on stage at a tech event in 2009. Brian Solis, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Jan Koum smiling, with short hair and stubble, in a dark hooded jacket. afromusing, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Kevin Systrom smiling, in a 2018 photo. Christopher Michel, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Operating Systems

Operating Systems: Functions, Types, Windows, Linux and DOS Commands

  1. Fig. 1Linus Torvalds speaking at a conference. Krd (photo), Von Sprat (crop), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Input/Output Devices

Input and Output Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanners, MICR, Monitors and Printers

  1. Fig. 1A flatbed scanner. You place a page on the glass and the scanner turns it into a picture for the computer. It is an input device.. Luke Launderville, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Inside an optical mouse. A small light (LED) shines on the desk and a tiny sensor watches the surface move. Older mice used a rubber ball instead.. Rasbak, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Light pen: a light-sensitive pen used to pick objects on the screen.. Dgb32, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4An early demonstration cheque with the MICR line at the bottom. MICR ink has iron-oxide particles, so a machine reads it magnetically.. SRI International, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5A handheld barcode scanner, the kind used at shop billing counters. It reads the bars with light.. Raimond Spekking, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Dot matrix printer (24-pin): pins strike an inked ribbon. Impact.. Corvair, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Inkjet printer, covers off: tiny ink drops are sprayed. Non-impact.. Snewkirk7953, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Storage

Computer Memory: Units, RAM, ROM, Cache, Hard Disk and Storage Devices

  1. Fig. 1A DDR4 RAM module. RAM is the computer's working memory. It is fast, but it forgets everything when the power goes off.. ElooKoN, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Magnetic-core memory, the main memory of many computers from the mid-1950s into the 1970s. Each tiny ring stored one bit. It kept its data even without power.. Bubba73 (Jud McCranie), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3SSD (Solid State Drive): flash memory, no moving parts.. D-Kuru, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 at · Source
  4. Fig. 4An opened 2.5-inch hard disk drive. The shiny disc is the platter. The arm carries the read-write head, which moves across the spinning platter.. Evan-Amos, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Physics

Motion, Force, Newton's Laws and Gravitation

  1. Fig. 1Newton's cradle, standing on a copy of Newton's Principia. Lift one end ball and let it hit the row: one ball flies out at the other end. Momentum passes through the row and is conserved.. DemonDeLuxe (Dominique Toussaint), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Work, Energy, Power and Sources of Energy

  1. Fig. 1A wind energy farm at Muppandal, near Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu, one of India's windiest belts. The wind's kinetic energy turns the blades, and a generator makes electricity.. Deepa vasudevan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A dish-type solar cooker at Phuktal monastery, Zanskar (Ladakh). The concave mirror reflects sunlight onto the black kettle at its focus. A mirror is used, not a lens, because a thick glass lens absorbs part of the heat.. Timothy A. Gonsalves, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Units 1 and 2 of the Kudankulam nuclear power plant, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu. Inside each dome a reactor runs on controlled fission of uranium.. Reetesh Chaurasia, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Sound: Waves, Pitch, Loudness and Echo

  1. Fig. 1A tuning fork on a wooden resonance box (made by Max Kohl, Germany). Struck, its prongs vibrate at one fixed frequency. The hollow box vibrates with them and makes the sound louder.. Brian0918 (en.wikipedia), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Bottlenose dolphins (Scotland) also use ultrasound echoes to hunt and find their way. Peter Asprey, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3How SONAR measures distance. The sender sends a pulse (red); it hits the object and the echo (green) returns. The pulse goes there and back, so distance = speed × time ÷ 2.. Georg Wiora (Dr. Schorsch), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4The human ear. Sound enters the external auditory canal and shakes the tympanic membrane (eardrum). The malleus, incus and stapes pass the vibration on to the cochlea, and the cochlear nerve carries signals to the brain.. Lars Chittka and Axel Brockmann, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.5 · Source

Light: Reflection, Refraction and the Human Eye

  1. Fig. 1The human eye. Light passes the cornea and pupil, the lens focuses it, and the image forms on the retina. The optic nerve takes the signals to the brain. The sclera is the tough white outer coat.. Rhcastilhos and Jmarchn, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Dispersion by a glass prism. White light splits into the seven colours (VIBGYOR). Red bends the least (top); violet bends the most (bottom).. Astroskiandhike, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A double rainbow in Alaska. In the bright main bow, red is on the outside and violet inside; the fainter outer bow has the order reversed. The photographer stood with the Sun behind.. Eric Rolph (en.wikipedia), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Optical fibres carrying red light. The light bounces inside each thread by total internal reflection and comes out only at the tip, even when the fibre bends.. Tyler Nienhouse, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Electricity and Magnetism: Current, Circuits and Magnetic Effects

  1. Fig. 1An ammeter. Its dial is marked A for ampere, the unit of current. An ammeter is always joined in series, so the whole current passes through it.. Anders Jonsson, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A filament bulb. The thin coil is tungsten, which melts only at about 3380 °C, so it can glow white-hot. The bulb is filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon, so the filament does not burn up.. KMJ, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Iron filings around a bar magnet trace its magnetic field lines. The filings crowd at the poles, where the field is strongest. The lines curve round from one pole to the other.. MikeRun, Vera Wurmsdobler, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Heat, Pressure, Friction and Units of Measurement

  1. Fig. 1Top of a 19th-century mercury barometer from Germany (photo cropped). Air pressure holds up the mercury in the glass tube, and its height is read on the scale. A falling reading warns of rain or storm; a rising one means fair weather.. Franz van Duns, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A ball bearing. The steel balls roll between the two rings, so the parts do not slide on each other. Rolling friction is less than sliding friction, so bearings in fans, cycles and motors save energy and wear.. Solaris2006, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A cup anemometer. The wind spins the cups; the faster they turn, the stronger the wind. An anemometer measures wind speed (anemo = wind).. Stefan Kühn, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source

Solar System, Stars and India's Space Missions

  1. Fig. 1Total solar eclipse, 11 August 1999 (France). The Moon comes between the Sun and Earth and hides the Sun. Only the Sun's glowing outer layer, the corona, shows. It happens only on a new moon day.. Luc Viatour, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Total lunar eclipse, 8 October 2014 (California). The Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon. Earth's air bends a little red sunlight onto the Moon, so it looks red. It happens only on a full moon night.. Alfredo Garcia, Jr, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The Milky Way, our own galaxy, seen from Chile. We see it from inside, as a bright band of billions of stars. The two faint patches on the left are the Magellanic Clouds, small nearby galaxies.. Bruno Gilli/ESO, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4The full Moon. The Moon has no light of its own; it reflects sunlight. The dark patches are old lava plains, and the bright spots are craters. The same side always faces Earth, because the Moon spins once on its axis in the time it takes to go once round Earth.. Gregory H. Revera, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Chemistry

Matter: States, Mixtures and Separation

  1. Fig. 1Salt pans at Marakkanam, Tamil Nadu. Sea water is let into shallow pans and the Sun evaporates the water. Common salt is left behind. Sea water is a mixture; this is the oldest way to separate it.. Dey.sandip, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Tyndall effect in fog. Fog is a colloid of tiny water drops in air. The drops scatter the light, so the beams become visible. A true solution, like salt water, does not do this.. Domala72, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Separating funnel: oil floats on water; open the tap to drain the water out first. PRHaney, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Paper chromatography: one dark ink splits into its coloured parts. Oscar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Atoms, Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

  1. Fig. 1Bohr's model. Electrons stay in fixed shells round the positive nucleus. When an electron drops to a lower shell, it gives out the extra energy as light.. JabberWok, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Bromine, a halogen, is a dark red-brown liquid at room temperature, and it gives off red-brown fumes. It is the only non-metal that is liquid; mercury is the only liquid metal.. W. Oelen, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Chemical Reactions, Acids, Bases and Salts

  1. Fig. 1Litmus in acid. The lower ends of both strips were dipped in an acid. The blue strip turned red; the red strip stayed red. A base does the opposite: it turns red litmus blue.. Kanesskong, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO). With water it becomes slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, and gives out so much heat that the water may boil. Slaked lime is used for whitewash.. Leiem, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3pH strip after an acidic solution (about pH 2): warm red-orange colours. Rupal Dugar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4pH strip after a basic solution (about pH 10): a pad turns blue. Rupal Dugar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Copper sulphate (blue vitriol) crystals. The blue colour comes from water of crystallisation held inside the crystal. Heated, the crystals lose this water and turn white; add water and the blue comes back.. Дарья Могилевцева, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source

Metals, Non-metals and Carbon Compounds

  1. Fig. 1Diamond (left) and graphite (right) are both pure carbon. In diamond each carbon holds four others in a rigid 3-D net, so it is the hardest natural substance. In graphite the atoms form flat layers that slide, so it is soft and conducts electricity.. Itub, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Sodium kept under oil. It reacts so fast with air and water that it is stored under kerosene. Its cut faces show how soft it is — it can be cut with a knife.. W. Oelen, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Bauxite, the main ore of aluminium (from Arkansas, USA). It is rich in aluminium oxide. In India it is mined in Odisha, Jharkhand and Gujarat.. James St. John, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Rust on scrap iron. Rust is reddish-brown iron oxide; it flakes off and lets the iron below rust too. Rusting is a chemical change and a slow oxidation. Salt water makes it faster.. W.carter, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Fuels, Combustion and Synthetic Materials

  1. Fig. 1A domestic LPG cylinder (14.2 kg). LPG is mostly butane and propane, kept as a liquid under pressure. It has no smell of its own, so a strong-smelling compound, ethyl mercaptan (ethanethiol), is added to reveal leaks.. Prabhupuducherry, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A CNG bus of the Delhi Transport Corporation, which runs one of the world's largest CNG bus fleets. CNG is natural gas — mainly methane — pressed into cylinders. It burns cleaner than petrol and diesel.. Ramesh NG, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A small household biogas plant in India being fed with waste slurry. Bacteria break the waste down without air and give off gas that is mostly methane. The leftover slurry is good manure.. Priyadarshini Karve, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Zones of a candle flame. The dark inner zone holds unburnt wax vapour. The yellow zone glows but burns only partly. The faint outer zone burns completely and is the hottest. Note: this drawing splits the flame into more parts than the textbook. The small 'Blue zone' marked at its base is not the textbook's outer blue zone. For exams, use the three zones in the table below: innermost dark = least hot, middle yellow = moderate, outermost (the faint 'non-luminous veil' here, about 1400 °C) = hottest.. A loose necktie, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Nylon rope. Nylon is strong, light and elastic, and it does not rot in water. That is why it is used for ropes, fishing nets and parachutes.. Angelsharum, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Plastic pipes waiting to be laid (the Commons file is titled "PVC pipes"; the photo alone cannot show which plastic). PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is a thermoplastic made from the monomer vinyl chloride. It is tough and does not rust, so it is widely used for water and drain pipes.. Kenneth Allen, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source

Biology

Nutrition, Vitamins and Deficiency Diseases

  1. Fig. 1A North Indian thali. Roti and rice give carbohydrates (energy), dal gives protein, and salad and vegetables give vitamins, minerals and fibre. Many foods together make a balanced diet.. Shashank shk, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Amla (Indian gooseberry) on the tree. It is one of the richest natural sources of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Vitamin C is an antioxidant; it helps heal wounds and boosts immunity, but it does not control blood sugar.. Lalithamba, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Life Processes: Digestion, Respiration, Transport and Excretion

  1. Fig. 1The human heart has four chambers: two atria above and two ventricles below. Blue marks oxygen-poor blood; red marks oxygen-rich blood. Note the blue pulmonary arteries — they carry oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.. ZooFari, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A nephron, the filtering unit of the kidney. Blood is filtered in Bowman's capsule; useful substances are taken back along the tubules; the rest flows down the collecting duct as urine.. Holly Fischer, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source

The Cell, Tissues and the Organisation of Life

  1. Fig. 1Onion peel cells under a school microscope (40×). The thick lines are cell walls; the dark dots are nuclei. This is the class 9 practical.. loganrickert, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source

Reproduction, Heredity and Evolution

  1. Fig. 1A Hydra budding, seen under a microscope. The small hydra on the left is a bud. It already has tentacles and will soon break off as a new animal.. Brandon Antonio Segura Torres & Priscilla Vieto Bonilla, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Dolly the sheep, now in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. Born in 1996 at the Roslin Institute, she was the first mammal cloned from an adult cell. Her birth was announced in 1997.. Sgerbic, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Archaeopteryx fossil (Berlin specimen). It had feathers like a bird, but also teeth, claws and a bony tail like a reptile. So it is a link between reptiles and birds.. H. Raab (Vesta), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Plants, Photosynthesis and Crop Production

  1. Fig. 1Ripe wheat in Punjab. Wheat is the main rabi crop: sown in October–November, harvested in March–April. Its grain is stored food made by photosynthesis.. Satpal Dandiwal, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Root nodules on a legume. Inside live Rhizobium bacteria. They turn nitrogen gas from the air into compounds the plant can use. In return the plant feeds them.. Terraprima, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A paddy field in Punjab, nearly ready for harvest. Paddy is a kharif crop that needs a lot of water. Its stubble is often burnt before wheat is sown.. Sarbjit Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Control and Coordination: Nerves, Hormones and Adolescence

  1. Fig. 1A neuron. Dendrites pick up a message, the cell body handles it, and the long axon carries it away. At the synaptic terminals the message passes to the next cell.. BruceBlaus (Blausen Medical), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The surface of the cerebrum. Different areas handle movement, touch, hearing, sight and speech. Broca's area produces speech; Wernicke's area understands it.. BruceBlaus (Blausen Medical), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The main endocrine glands. The pituitary sits under the brain; the pineal is deeper inside. The adrenals sit on top of the kidneys.. OpenStax, Tomáš Kebert & umimeto.org, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Phototropism: an orchid on a windowsill leans its leaves and flowers towards the light. Tangopaso, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Environment

Environment: Ecosystems, Pollution and Conservation

  1. Fig. 1Harike wetland, where the Beas meets the Sutlej (Tarn Taran–Ferozepur). It is a Ramsar site since 1990. The plants with purple flowers are water hyacinth, a weed that chokes such lakes.. Jaypee, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Burning paddy straw before sowing wheat, south-east Punjab. The smoke adds PM2.5 and smog over North India each autumn. India's National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) began in 2019 to cut such pollution in cities.. Neil Palmer (CIAT), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Algal bloom on a lake fed by farm run-off (Germany). Smaack, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) on the Mula river, Pune — the world's worst water weed. DesiBoy101, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Hangul (Kashmir stag) in Dachigam National Park, near Srinagar. It is the state animal of Jammu & Kashmir. Dachigam holds its main surviving population.. Tahirshawl, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Punjab History

Ancient and Medieval Punjab: From Harappa to the Mughals

  1. Fig. 1Excavated brick structures and a well at Harappa (Sahiwal, Pakistan), on the old course of the Ravi. Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921.. Hassan Nasir, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A Harappan seal with a one-horned animal and script signs (Indian Museum, Kolkata). The Harappans used copper and bronze, not iron. In Punjab, Ropar was the first Harappan site dug in free India (1953).. Royroydeb, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Remains of the Kushan-period Buddhist stupa at Sanghol (Fatehgarh Sahib). The stupa was excavated in 1968, and 117 Mathura-school sculptures were found here in 1985.. SpeakingArch, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Dharmarajika Stupa, Taxila — a great Buddhist centre; the Huns ruined it. Mhtoori, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Coin of Menander (Milinda) — capital Sakala (Sialkot). SpeakingArch, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Ram Tirath, near Amritsar — by tradition Valmiki's ashram, birthplace of Lav and Kush. Mohalimunda, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Takht-i-Akbari, Kalanaur (Gurdaspur) — Akbar was crowned here in 1556, aged 13. Hebronpeters, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Rohtas Fort, Jhelum (Pakistan) — built by Sher Shah Suri against the Gakhars. Mhtoori, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Shrine of Baba Farid, Pakpattan — Chishti saint; his bani is in the Adi Granth. Sunni Person, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Rauza Sharif, Sirhind — shrine of the Naqshbandi Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi; his Urs is held here. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

The Ten Sikh Gurus: History, Contributions and Key Facts

  1. Fig. 1Sri Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar. Its foundation was laid in 1588, in the time of Guru Arjan Dev.. Rupeshsarkar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Nankana Sahib (old Rai Bhoi di Talwandi) — Guru Nanak was born here in 1469. Shahzaib Damn Cruze, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Kartarpur (Pakistan) — Guru Nanak's last 18 years; Kartarpur Corridor opened 9 November 2019. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Baoli Sahib, Goindwal — the stepwell with 84 steps built by Guru Amar Das.. Kuldeepburjbhalaike, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Sri Tarn Taran Sahib — the town Guru Arjan Dev founded in 1590, in the land between the Ravi and the Beas.. jasleen_kaur, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6The Akal Takht (left), built by Guru Hargobind in 1606, faces Harmandir Sahib (right) across the sarovar.. Jasleen Kaur, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Gurdwara Patalpuri Sahib, Kiratpur (Rupnagar). Guru Hargobind founded Kiratpur on the Sutlej in 1626; Guru Har Rai was born and passed away here.. Hari Singh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Gurdwara Bangla Sahib, Delhi — once Raja Jai Singh's bungalow, where Guru Har Krishan stayed and served smallpox patients.. Slyronit, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Kesgarh Sahib, Anandpur Sahib — Khalsa born here, 1699. Historiansimar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Damdama Sahib, Talwandi Sabo — Damdami Bir. Kuldeepburjbhalaike, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Patna Sahib, Bihar — birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh. Shivamsetu, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Hazur Sahib, Nanded — Guru Gobind Singh passed away here, 1708. Subhag Singh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Banda Singh Bahadur and the Sikh Misls (1708–1799)

  1. Fig. 1Fateh Burj at Chappar Chiri (Mohali) — 328 ft high, opened in 2011 to mark Banda Singh Bahadur's victory of 12 May 1710.. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A silver rupee of Banda Singh Bahadur's rule (about 1711). His coins were struck in the names of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. (cngcoins.com), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Gurdwara Shaheed Baba Deep Singh, Amritsar — linked to his martyrdom in November 1757. He founded the Shaheedan misl.. jasleen_kaur, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Bangla Sahib, New Delhi — one of his seven gurdwaras. Slyronit, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Empire (1799–1849)

  1. Fig. 1A replica of the Koh-i-Noor. Ranjit Singh got the diamond from Shah Shuja on 1 June 1813; it was presented to Queen Victoria in 1850.. aiva., Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2A coin of Ranjit Singh from the Amritsar mint, with the leaf mark. Nanakshahi coins were struck in the names of the Gurus, not the king.. User:LouisAragon (uploader), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.5 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Gobindgarh Fort, Amritsar. In Ranjit Singh's time the fort was in the charge of Faqir Imamuddin.. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Samadhi of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Lahore (Pakistan). It stands beside the Badshahi Mosque.. Muhammad Umair Mirza, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Punjab in the Freedom Struggle (1849–1947)

  1. Fig. 1The Jallianwala Bagh memorial, Amritsar. The memorial was unveiled in 1961, in memory of those killed on 13 April 1919.. Gannu03, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Desh Bhagat Yadgar Hall, Jalandhar — built by the surviving Ghadarites. The Gadri Babian da Mela is held here around 1 November.. Stalinjeet Brar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Bullet marks on a Bagh wall — about 1,650 rounds were fired.. Shagil Kannur, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4National Martyrs Memorial, Hussainiwala (Ferozepur), on the Sutlej. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were secretly cremated here in 1931.. Kuldeepburjbhalaike, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Punjab after 1947: Partition, PEPSU and the Punjabi Suba

  1. Fig. 1Peterhoff, Shimla. The East Punjab High Court sat here from 15 August 1947, while Shimla was the temporary capital.. Utkarshraj Atmaram, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Attari–Wagah border near Amritsar. Attari is on the Indian side and Wagah on the Pakistani side of the line drawn in 1947.. Tamjeed Ahmed, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3The Palace of Assembly (right) and the Secretariat (behind) in the Capitol Complex, Chandigarh, designed by Le Corbusier.. UnpetitproleX, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Qila Mubarak, Patiala — PEPSU's capital city. Journojp, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Photograph of Master Tara Singh with a long white beard, speaking at a microphone. Amarjit Chandan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Punjab in 1956 (left) and after the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1 November 1966 (right): Haryana is new, Himachal Pradesh is bigger, and Chandigarh is a Union Territory.. MPGuy2824, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Punjabi University, Patiala — set up in 1962, the same year as Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.. Rahulsahota1999, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Gurdwara Sri Tarn Taran Sahib. Guru Arjan Dev founded the town of Tarn Taran in 1590; the district was created on 16 June 2006.. jasleen_kaur, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source

Punjab Geography

Location, Area and Physical Regions of Punjab

  1. Fig. 1Today's Punjab (India) with its district boundaries. Pakistan is to the west; the hills of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh rise in the north-east. Notice the roughly triangular shape, and the Beas and the Sutlej cutting across the state.. C1MM, based on NordNordWest, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Palace of Assembly, Chandigarh. Chandigarh, on Punjab's east, is a Union Territory and the joint capital of Punjab and Haryana.. duncid, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Attari–Wagah crossing, Amritsar — a Majha border district. Schüler1000, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Kartarpur Corridor at Dera Baba Nanak, Gurdaspur — where the Ravi forms the border. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Hussainiwala, Ferozepur — the Sutlej leaves India below it. Giridhar Appaji Nag Y, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6A dry seasonal stream below the Shivalik hills (in Himachal Pradesh). In Punjab's Kandi belt, streams like this — dry for most of the year, flooding in the rains — are called choes.. Sahil Dhiman, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Shivalik hills from Chandigarh — the outermost Himalayan range. UnpetitproleX, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Alluvial plain — the flat wheat–rice heartland. Sarbjit Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Cotton farm in the sandy south-west — the cotton belt. Tizzythewhale, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Majha: Sri Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar. Rupeshsarkar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Doaba: Jagatjit Palace, Kapurthala. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Malwa: Ludhiana, Punjab's biggest city. Mnv179, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  13. Fig. 13A modern map of undivided Punjab (borders as in about 1901–1947). Look for the five rivers and the doabs between them. The map spells Rachna as "Rechna" and labels the Chaj Doab "Jech". Zoom in to read the small labels.. Fowler&fowler, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  14. Fig. 142021: Malerkotla becomes the 23rd district. Khalid G A, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Rivers, Canals and Dams of Punjab

  1. Fig. 1Ravi — it enters Punjab at Madhopur (Pathankot) and forms much of the India–Pakistan border. Periogaurav, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Ghaggar at Panchkula — a seasonal river. Its wide bed is mostly dry outside the monsoon; it dies out in Rajasthan as the Hakra.. Maheshkumaryadav (http://www.TastyTouch.co.in), Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Gobind Sagar, Bhakra's lake on the Sutlej — named after Guru Gobind Singh Ji. Manu moudgil, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Lake at Nangal (Rupnagar), behind the Nangal Dam, 13 km below Bhakra. Kshitiz Sikka, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Ranjit Sagar (Thein) Dam on the Ravi, in Pathankot district. It was completed in 2001.. Vikramaadityasumbria, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Maharana Pratap Sagar, the lake of the Pong (Beas) Dam in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. The dam is an earth-fill dam (1974) and the lake is a Ramsar wetland.. Vikasjariyal, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Ropar headworks, Rupnagar — the Sirhind Canal (1882) starts here. Harpreet Riat, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8National Martyrs' Memorial at Hussainiwala headworks, Ferozepur. Giridhar Appaji Nag Y, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Harike wetland, formed behind the Harike barrage where the Beas meets the Sutlej. It spreads over Tarn Taran, Ferozepur and Kapurthala districts.. Jaypee, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10The Bhakra Main Line (1954). It takes water from the Nangal Hydel Channel to Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan — the longest canal system in the state.. Zenit, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11The Rajasthan Feeder in Punjab. It runs from Harike through Ferozepur, Faridkot and Sri Muktsar Sahib to the Indira Gandhi Canal.. The original uploader was Shemaroo at English Wikipedia., Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source

Districts and Cities of Punjab: Divisions, Old Names and Famous Places

  1. Fig. 1The Attari–Wagah border near Amritsar. Attari is the last Indian railway station on the Amritsar–Lahore line.. Schüler1000, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Eidgah, Malerkotla. Carved out of Sangrur in 2021, Malerkotla is the only Muslim-majority district of Punjab.. Khalid G A, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Jagatjit Palace, Kapurthala, built by Maharaja Jagatjit Singh in the style of the Palace of Versailles. Sainik School Kapurthala (1961) runs in it.. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Sri Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar — the city founded by Guru Ram Das. Rupeshsarkar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Sarovar at Tarn Taran — town founded by Guru Arjan Dev (1590); district since 2006. Giridhar Appaji Nag Y from Bangalore, India, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Moorish Mosque, Kapurthala (1930) — modelled on the Koutoubia mosque of Marrakesh. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Virasat-e-Khalsa (the Khalsa Heritage Centre) at Anandpur Sahib, Rupnagar district, designed by Moshe Safdie and opened in 2011.. Aashish3000, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Takht Sri Kesgarh Sahib, Anandpur Sahib (Rupnagar) — where the Khalsa was created in 1699. Deziner89, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Clock tower (Ghanta Ghar), Ludhiana — the largest district by area and population. Mnv179, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Qila Mubarak, Patiala — built by Baba Ala Singh (1763). Journojp, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Buddhist stupa at Sanghol (Uchha Pind), Fatehgarh Sahib — a Harappan and Kushan site. SpeakingArch, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Takht Sri Damdama Sahib, Talwandi Sabo (Bathinda) — "Guru ki Kashi". Kuldeepburjbhalaike, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  13. Fig. 13National Martyrs Memorial, Hussainiwala (Ferozepur) — Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were cremated here (1931). Giridhar Appaji Nag Y, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  14. Fig. 14Gobindgarh Fort, Amritsar — a Bhangi misl fort, open to the public since 2017. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  15. Fig. 15Durgiana Mandir, Amritsar — built in the 1920s in the style of Harmandir Sahib. Guilhem Vellut, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  16. Fig. 16Banasar Bagh, Sangrur — garden of the old Jind state, with a baradari. Osheen477, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  17. Fig. 17The Palace of Assembly in the Capitol Complex, Chandigarh, designed by Le Corbusier. The Capitol Complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2016).. duncid, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source

Climate, Soils & Agriculture of Punjab: Seasons, Crops and Key Facts

  1. Fig. 1A young wheat crop in Punjab in winter. Wheat is the main rabi (Harhi) crop and covers almost the whole rabi area.. Sarbjit Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Monsoon clouds. About 70% of Punjab's yearly rain falls in the monsoon, July–September.. Sukhwinder Khepar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3A dry seasonal torrent below the Shivaliks (photo from Himachal Pradesh) — in Punjab such streams are called choes. Choes cut up the Kandi belt and cause soil erosion.. Sahil Dhiman, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Wheat — the main rabi crop, harvested in March–April. Satpal Dandiwal, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Rapeseed-mustard — another rabi crop, sown in October–November. Satdeep gill, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Paddy — the main kharif crop, harvested in September–October. Sarbjit Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Cotton — kharif crop of the south-west Malwa cotton belt. Mulkh Singh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8A kinnow orchard. Punjab's kinnow belt is around Abohar–Fazilka in the dry south-west.. vikas bishnoi, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9M.S. Swaminathan speaking at an event in 2013. Biswarup Ganguly, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Paddy straw (parali) after the harvest — many farmers burn it to clear the field fast. CIAT, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11A Happy Seeder — sows wheat straight into the paddy stubble. FatherofGod, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Sowing wheat without burning the straw — in-situ management. CIAT, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  13. Fig. 13College of Agriculture, Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana — set up in 1962; it bred the PBW wheats and PR rice.. Jagmit Singh Brar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Forests, Wildlife and Wetlands of Punjab: Ramsar Sites, Sanctuaries and State Symbols

  1. Fig. 1Harike wetland, where the Beas joins the Sutlej. It is the largest wetland of north India and Punjab's first Ramsar site (1990).. Jaypee, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Kikar (babul), Acacia nilotica, in flower. Its bark is rich in tannin and its twigs are used as datun.. Varinder Naturaphile, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Blackbuck (Kala Hiran) — state animal; only males have the dark coat and spiral horns. Davidvraju, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Baaz (Northern Goshawk) — state bird. Norbert Kenntner, Berlin, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Shisham (Tahli) — state tree. Bijay Chaurasia, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Gladiolus (sword lily) — state flower. ShohagS, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7An Indus river dolphin surfacing for air. In India this dolphin is found only in the Beas Conservation Reserve, Punjab.. Navdeepsood, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Bar-headed geese — winter migrants from Central Asia that reach Harike in large numbers.. Charles J. Sharp, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Ropar wetland (2002) on the Sutlej, Rupnagar. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Nangal (2019): the Nangal reservoir below Bhakra. Kshitiz Sikka, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Gharial — brought back to the Beas Conservation Reserve in 2017. Charles J. Sharp, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Blackbuck at Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary, Fazilka. Arun Bansal, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  13. Fig. 13Sambar — Takhni-Rehmapur, Hoshiarpur. Timothy Gonsalves, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  14. Fig. 14Nilgai — Bir Aishwan, Sangrur. Charles J. Sharp, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  15. Fig. 15Hog deer — Bir Aishwan, Sangrur. T. R. Shankar Raman, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  16. Fig. 16Entrance of Chhatbir Zoo (Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological Park), SAS Nagar — the largest zoo of north India.. Stalinjeet Brar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  17. Fig. 17Paddy straw (parali) in a Punjab field. Burning it in October–November is Punjab's biggest air-pollution problem.. CIAT, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source

Punjab Culture

Folk Dances and Music of Punjab: Bhangra, Giddha, Jhumar, Instruments and Folk Songs

  1. Fig. 1Bhangra dancers in the traditional men's dress — kurta, lungi (tehmat), jugi (waistcoat) and a turban. Dhol players keep the beat behind them.. Onef9day, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Bhangra statues, Amritsar — turban with a turla, jugi and lungi.. Amritpal Singh Mann, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Dholis — the big two-sided dhol gives Bhangra its beat.. Vikramarora1981, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Statue of dancing women, Amritsar. In real Giddha, women stand in a circle and clap while one or two dance in the middle.. Amritpal Singh Mann, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Two women whirl hand in hand at Teeyan, the women's festival of Sawan — a Kikli-style move. Giddha is danced at Teeyan too.. University of the Fraser Valley, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Kikli — two girls cross arms, hold hands and whirl.. Gurpreet1986, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Left: the algoza — two wooden flutes played together. Right: the toomba (tumba), a long-necked folk string instrument. It is not the same as the small tumbi in the table below, the one-string instrument made famous by Lal Chand Yamla Jatt.. Ravideep1971, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Bugdu (bugchu) — sounded by pulling a string.. Jagseer S Sidhu, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9A Dhadi jatha on stage — two dhads and a sarangi. Dhad → Dhadi.. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Wadali Brothers — Sufi singers of Guru Ki Wadali.. Lakhwinder Wadali, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Jagjit Singh — ghazal singer.. Krupasindhu Muduli, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Fairs, Festivals and Customs of Punjab: Months, Places and Key Facts

  1. Fig. 1Nihang Singhs at Hola Mohalla, Anandpur Sahib. On the day after Holi they show horse-riding, gatka and mock battles.. bhavjit Singh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Lohri bonfire. People offer til, rewri and peanuts to the fire on the last night of Poh.. Benipal hardarshan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Horse-riding display at Hola Mohalla, Anandpur Sahib — the day after Holi.. bhavjit Singh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Takht Sri Damdama Sahib, Talwandi Sabo (Bathinda) — one of the biggest Baisakhi fairs.. Kuldeepburjbhalaike, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Gurdwara Data Bandi Chhor, Gwalior Fort — Guru Hargobind's release is remembered on Diwali.. Kshitiz Sikka, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Sansarpur (Jalandhar), the "Mecca of Indian hockey" — its village hockey club.. Geet Arts, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Women in Phulkari chunnis.. DilPree, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Sarson da saag and makki di roti — Punjab's winter meal.. Yash Kapoor, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Phulkari — silk flowers on open khaddar.. Chiswick Chap, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Bagh — the whole cloth covered, so it hardly shows.. Chiswick Chap, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Punjabi Literature: Poets, Writers and Their Works

  1. Fig. 1The shrine (darbar) of Baba Farid at Pakpattan (old Ajodhan), now in Pakistan. Baba Farid is called the first poet of Punjabi.. Sunni Person, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The tomb of Bulleh Shah at Kasur (Pakistan). His spiritual guide was Shah Inayat Qadiri of Lahore.. Muhammad Imran Khan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar. The Adi Granth was installed here in 1604; Baba Buddha was the first Granthi.. Rupeshsarkar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Amrita Pritam (seated, front) with Mohan Singh, Balwant Gargi, Harbhajan Singh and others. Amarjit Chandan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Mohan Singh (Saave Pattar) and the critic Sant Singh Sekhon, Jalandhar, 1969. Amarjit Chandan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Photograph of the novelist Dalip Kaur Tiwana in old age, wearing glasses. Satdeep Gill, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Colour portrait of Shiv Kumar Batalvi with dark wavy hair, 1970. BBC News اردو, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Black-and-white portrait of the poet Harbhajan Singh in glasses and a turban. Amarjit Chandan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Photograph of the poet Surjit Patar. Jaypee, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Pash (Avtar Singh Sandhu), the revolutionary poet of Loh Katha, at Nakodar in 1973. He was killed in 1988.. Amarjit Chandan, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Monuments, Museums and Heritage of Punjab: Forts, Gurdwaras and Memorials

  1. Fig. 1Qila Mubarak, Patiala — the fort founded by Baba Ala Singh in 1763. Do not mix it up with the much older Qila Mubarak of Bathinda.. Journojp, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Sri Harmandir Sahib in its sarovar, Amritsar — foundation 1588; the Akal Takht (1606) faces it.. Jasleen Kaur, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Kesgarh Sahib, Anandpur Sahib — Khalsa, 1699.. Historiansimar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Damdama Sahib, Talwandi Sabo — "Guru ki Kashi".. Kuldeepburjbhalaike, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Ram Tirath, Amritsar district — tradition of Lav and Kush.. Mohalimunda, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Moorish Mosque, Kapurthala (1930) — modelled on Marrakesh's Koutoubia.. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Gobindgarh Fort, Amritsar — Bhangi misl, rebuilt by Ranjit Singh.. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8New Moti Bagh Palace, Patiala — the royal family's residence. (The NIS is in the Old Moti Bagh Palace nearby.). Satdeep Gill, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Sheesh Mahal, Patiala — art and medal gallery.. Keshuseeker, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Jagatjit Palace, Kapurthala (1908) — now a Sainik School.. Harvinder Chandigarh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Banasar Bagh, Sangrur — garden of the former Jind state.. Osheen477, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Virasat-e-Khalsa, Anandpur Sahib, designed by Moshe Safdie and opened on 25 November 2011. Its roofs are shaped to look like hands joined in prayer.. Kshitiz Sikka, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  13. Fig. 13The Town Hall, Amritsar — home of the Partition Museum (2017), the world's first museum on the Partition of 1947.. shankar s., Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  14. Fig. 14The Rock Garden, Chandigarh — Nek Chand's figures made from broken tiles and waste.. Slyronit, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Famous Personalities of Punjab: Nicknames, Achievers and Awards

  1. Fig. 1A ward of All India Pingalwara, Amritsar — the home Bhagat Puran Singh founded in 1947 for destitute, disabled and mentally ill people.. MaplesyrupSushi, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Portrait photograph of Kiran Bedi in glasses, 2016. A. Mhadhbi, ITU Pictures, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 2.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Figures made from broken tiles and pottery at the Rock Garden, Chandigarh — the work of Nek Chand.. Slyronit, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Milkha Singh, the "Flying Sikh" — 4th in the 400 m final at the 1960 Rome Olympics.. Sanyam Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5The Sansarpur Hockey Association (founded 1926) in Sansarpur village, Jalandhar — the "Mecca of Indian hockey".. Geet Arts, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Photograph of the wrestler and actor Dara Singh in old age. Camaal Fotografia, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Photograph of Dr Manmohan Singh in a blue turban, 2007. Ricardo Stuckert/PR, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 br · Source
  8. Fig. 8Photograph of the cricketer Kapil Dev. Bollywood Hungama, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Photograph of the poet Surjit Patar. Jaypee, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Punjab Polity

Punjab Government and Administration: Vidhan Sabha, Governors, CMs and More

  1. Fig. 1The Palace of Assembly, Chandigarh — home of the Punjab Vidhan Sabha. Designed by Le Corbusier, it is part of the Capitol Complex (UNESCO World Heritage, 2016).. duncid, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2The Secretariat, Capitol Complex — offices of the state government. Nicholas.iyadurai, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Punjab and Haryana High Court — common to Punjab, Haryana and UT Chandigarh. Ishita Gupta, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Open Hand Monument, Capitol Complex — by Le Corbusier. Raakesh Blokhra, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Peterhoff, Shimla. Shimla was the temporary capital of East Punjab (1947–53), and the East Punjab High Court began here on 15 Aug 1947.. Utkarshraj Atmaram, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Sansad Bhavan (Parliament House), New Delhi. Punjab sends 13 members to the Lok Sabha and 7 to the Rajya Sabha.. Nikhilb239, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Photo of Rajinder Kaur Bhattal. Jagseer S Sidhu, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Photo of Charanjit Singh Channi. ABP Sanjha, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Photo of Parkash Singh Badal. Sanyam Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Photo of Bhagwant Mann. Jaypee, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Blackbuck (Kala Hiran) — state animal. Davidvraju, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Punjab Census 2011: Population, Literacy, Sex Ratio and District Facts

  1. Fig. 1Punjab's 23 districts today. Census 2011 numbers on this page were counted before some of these districts were created.. Wikigringo, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Rooftops of Ludhiana, Punjab's largest city. Ludhiana district had the highest density in the state: 975 persons per sq km (Census 2011).. Benison P Baby, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Said Kheri village near Rajpura — Punjab has about 12,500 inhabited villages. AMRIT RAISAR, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Farm work in a Punjab village — agriculture is the main source of living for rural Punjab (62.52%). CIAT, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Sri Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar — Sikhs are 57.69% of Punjab. Rupeshsarkar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Durgiana Mandir, Amritsar — Hindus are 38.49%, the second-largest group. Guilhem Vellut, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 2.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Eidgah, Malerkotla — Muslims (1.93%) live mainly around Malerkotla. Khalid G A, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Methodist Church, Bathinda — Christians are 1.26% (about 3.48 lakh). MaplesyrupSushi, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9A street sign in Gurmukhi above English at the Ludhiana clock tower (Ghanta Ghar). Punjabi in Gurmukhi became the official language under the Punjab Official Language Act, 1967.. Mnv179, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Men's traditional dress — kurta, chadra and turban — worn here by Bhangra dancers.. Onef9day, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11The Ravi at Ranjit Sagar Dam, Pathankot — Majha lies between the Ravi and the Beas. Vikramaadityasumbria, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Harike, where the Beas meets the Sutlej — Doaba lies between them, Malwa south of the Sutlej. Jaypee, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  13. Fig. 13Bajwara Fort, Hoshiarpur — Hoshiarpur had the highest literacy (about 85%) and best sex ratio (961). Karantsingh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  14. Fig. 14Saharna village, Mansa — Mansa had the lowest literacy (about 62%). Geet Arts, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

Punjab Schemes

Punjab Government Schemes and Institutions: Year, Target Group and Benefit

  1. Fig. 1Punjabi University, Patiala (founded 1962). It is often called the second university in the world named after a language, after the Hebrew University.. Rahulsahota1999, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Ludhiana — Smart City, Round 1 (Jan 2016). Mnv179, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Amritsar — Smart City (Round 2) and HRIDAY heritage city. Rupeshsarkar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4PAU Ludhiana (1962) — College of Agriculture building. Jagmit Singh Brar, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Central University of Punjab, Bathinda (2009). Iflex, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6The library area of Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, founded in 1969 on the 500th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak.. Gopal1035, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Gandhi Bhawan on the Panjab University campus, Chandigarh. The university was founded at Lahore in 1882 and moved to its Chandigarh campus in 1956.. Pranav1205, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8IIT Ropar (Rupnagar), set up in 2008 — main building of its first (transit) campus. Kunal Sachdeva, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9IISER Mohali (2007), SAS Nagar. Biswarup Ganguly, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10NIS Patiala (1961) — in the Old Moti Bagh Palace. Arshdeep Arshi, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Thapar Institute, Patiala (1956). Ayush.undefined, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  12. Fig. 12Dr B.R. Ambedkar NIT Jalandhar (1987, as REC). Simbu123, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source

Punjab Economy

Economy, Industry and Cooperatives of Punjab

  1. Fig. 1Ripening wheat in Punjab. Wheat and paddy are the base of the state's farm economy and of its "Granary of India" name.. Satpal Dandiwal, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  2. Fig. 2Ludhiana, Punjab's largest city and biggest industrial centre — the "Manchester of Punjab".. Benison P Baby, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  3. Fig. 3Gate of the Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala — it makes railway coaches and was set up in 1986.. Rajeshwarr Singh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  4. Fig. 4Wheat — the main rabi (winter) crop. Sarbjit Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  5. Fig. 5Paddy (rice) — kharif; wheat–paddy is the main cycle. Sarbjit Bahga, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  6. Fig. 6Cotton — kharif, in the Malwa cotton belt. Mulkh Singh, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0 · Source
  7. Fig. 7Kinnow orchard — Abohar–Fazilka and Hoshiarpur. vikas bishnoi, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  8. Fig. 8Guru Nanak Dev Thermal Plant, Bathinda — the first (1974); closed from 1 Jan 2018. MaplesyrupSushi, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source
  9. Fig. 9Ranjit Sagar Dam on the Ravi, Pathankot — 600 MW hydel. Vikramaadityasumbria, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Source
  10. Fig. 10Amritsar railway station — its building work began in 1859. Julian Nyča, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 3.0 · Source
  11. Fig. 11Attari–Wagah border — NH-3 begins at Attari. Schüler1000, Wikimedia Commons · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source